Animal Research

For research involving animals, authors must confirm that all procedures complied with relevant institutional, national, or international guidelines for the ethical care and use of laboratory animals. Manuscripts must state which ethical oversight body approved the work (e.g., institutional animal care and use committee, national regulatory authority) and include the approval number or reference.

Researchers are expected to follow current best practices for animal welfare, including minimizing pain and distress, using appropriate anesthesia and humane endpoints, and ensuring proper housing, care, and handling. Authors should apply the principles of the “3Rs” — replacement, reduction, and refinement — whenever feasible: using alternative methods instead of animals whenever possible (Replacement), using the minimum number of animals necessary to achieve scientific objectives (Reduction), and refining procedures to minimize suffering and improve welfare (Refinement). Guidance on applying the 3Rs is publicly provided by organizations such as the NC3Rs. More details are available on their website. In all cases where animal use is justified, authors should clearly describe in the manuscript how welfare and ethical standards were ensured.

Where applicable (e.g., in the European Union), authors should follow the regulations set out by the Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes, or other relevant national legislation. Authors are encouraged to consult the official summary of this directive. Compliance with such legislation should be stated in the manuscript.

This policy draws in part on EU legislation and publicly available guidance on animal care and welfare. Authors seeking more in-depth information should consult: